The Trouble with Mr. Darcy

Historical Notes

Ether was discovered in 1275 by Spanish chemist Raymundus Lullus, but it was Valerius Cordus in 1540 who synthesized ether into “sweet oil of vitriol” and praised its medicinal properties, chief of which was the alleviation of pain. His contemporary, Paracelsus, noted that sleep was induced when chickens ingested the liquid. The name was changed to “ethereal spirits” or “ether” in 1730 by German scientist W.G. Frobenius. Friedrich Hoffmann (1660-1742) combined it with ethyl alcohol and marketed it as “Hoffman’s Anodyne” as a treatment for cramps, earache, dysmenorrhea, and toothache. James Graham (1745-94), proprietor of the Temple of Hymen and the Celestial Bed, was a noted addict, habitually and publicly inhaling a couple of ounces several times a day. At this time ether became a recreational drug, along with nitrous oxide, with users celebrating parties called “ether frolics” to enjoy the hallucinogenic, euphoric effects before falling asleep. By 1790, inhaled ether was widely used by doctors in England to treat patients with consumption and other pulmonary ailments. It would not be until the experiments of Dr. Crawford Long in 1842 and Dr. William Morton in 1846 when cloths soaked in ether and inhaled by patients during minor surgery intrigued the serious medical community to develop techniques using ether as an anesthetic.

In 460 BC, Hippocrates described postpartum “fever,” which produced “agitation, delirium, and attacks of mania.” The 11th century writings of the gynecologist Trotula of Salerno note that, “if the womb is too moist, the brain is filled with water, and the moisture running over to the eyes, compels them to involuntarily shed tears.” Famed French psychiatrist Esquirol (1772-1840) wrote of the “mental alienation of those recently confined and of nursing women.” That some new mothers experienced unusual symptoms including melancholy all the way to psychosis was documented, but largely ignored by the medical community until 1858. Marcé’s Treatise on Insanity in Pregnant, Postpartum, and Lactating Women specifically delineated accounts of puerperal psychosis and depression, paving the way for greater studies and acknowledgement.

The fields of physiological and clinical chemistry—the study of chemicals in bodily fluids and how they work in the body—began in Britain in earnest around 1750. Dozens of physiologists lectured and researched, writing theses on the subject. It was this exploding area of science that gave Mary Shelley the ideas for Frankenstein, published in 1816. They built upon the ideals first proposed by others, including Descartes, who believed that life could be fully explained by chemical and physical principles alone.

Mental illnesses have been recognized from the dawn of time, although not well understood in general. Despite the inhumanity of many asylums and the bizarre “treatments” applied, there were doctors who strived to understand mental illnesses and apply science. The medieval Islamic physicians were highly advanced. As early as the 7th century they built hospitals and provided psychotherapy, medications, and even music and occupational therapy! The 11th century Persian physician Avicenna coined the term “physiological psychology” and associated mental illness with emotions. He also pioneered neuropsychiatry, recognizing the neurologic pathology to dementia, epilepsy, melancholia, and stroke, to name a few. England’s Bethlem Royal Hospital in London was founded in the 13th century and, despite the negative reputation, was the world’s first center for research and healing of the mentally ill. The location and official name has changed, but for more than 750 years Bethlem has been a part of London and maintained its specialization. In 1948 it combined with Maudsley Hospital and continues to be a leader in mental health research and services.

All of these sciences, and many others, interrelated and built upon each other. Physiological psychology—the branch of psychology that studies the biological and physiological basis of behavior—would not be referred to as such until around 1880, but the foundations to this understanding were laid in the centuries prior.